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SURVIVAL MANUAL WINTER 2002. UNITED STATES MARINE. WINTER SURVIVAL COURSE HANDBOOK. Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases in the Southeastern United States.
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SURVIVAL MANUAL WINTER 2002 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WINTER SURVIVAL COURSE HANDBOOK TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 CONTENTS REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL SURVIVAL KIT WATER PROCUREMENT EXPEDIENT SHELTERS AND FIRES CORE VALUES AND MOUNTAIN LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES SURVIVAL SIGNALING AND RECOVERY SURVIVAL NAVIGATION TRAPS AND SNARES USES FOR GAME SURVIVAL FISHING FIELD EXPEDIENT TOOLS, WEAPONS, AND EQUIPMENT EXPEDIENT SNOWSHOES WINTER TRACKING SURVIVAL MEDICINE WEATHER INTRO TO EVASION AVALANCHE AND ICE HAZARDS APPENDIX A B C D E F EVASION PLAN OF ACTION FORMAT “THE EDGE” GUIDED DISCUSSION SURVIVAL QUICK REFERENCE CHECKLIST ANIMAL HABITS TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS GRADING STANDARDS UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WSVX 02.01 02/06/05 STUDENT HANDOUT REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, apply the requirements for survival, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.01) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES (1) Without the aid of references and given the acronym “SURVIVAL”, describe in writing the acronym “SURVIVAL”, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.01a) (2) Without the aid of references, list in writing the survival stressors, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.01b) (3) Without the aid of references, list in writing the priorities of work in a survival situation, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.01c) OUTLINE 1. REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL a. This mental “mind-set” is important in many ways. We usually call it the “will to survive” although you might call it “attitude” just as well. This basically means that, if you do not have the right attitude, you may still not survive. b. A guideline that can assist you is the acronym “ SURVIVAL”. (WSVX.02.01a) (1) Size up. (a) Size up the situation. 1. Conceal yourself from the enemy. 2. Use your senses to hear, smell, and see to determine and consider what is developing on the battlefield before you make your survival plan. (b) Size up your surroundings. WSVX 02.01 01-1 1. Determine the rhythm or pattern of the area. 2. Note animal and bird noises and their movement. 3. Note enemy traffic and civilian movement. (c) Size up your physical condition. 1. Check your wounds and give yourself first aid. 2. Take care to prevent further bodily harm. 3. Evaluate condition of self and unit prior to developing survival plan. (d) Size up your equipment. 1. Consider how available equipment may affect survival senses; tailor accordingly. (2) Undue haste makes waste. (a) Plan your moves so that you can move out quickly without endangering yourself if the enemy is near. (3) Remember where you are. (a) If you have a map, spot your location and relate it to the surrounding terrain. (b) Pay close attention to where you are and where you are going. Constantly orient yourself. (c) Try to determine, at a minimum, how your location relates to the following: 1. The location of enemy units and controlled areas. 2. The location of friendly units and controlled areas. 3. The location of local water sources. 4. Areas that will provide good cover and concealment. (4) Vanquish fear and panic. 01-2 WSVX 02.01 (a) Realistic and challenging training builds self-confidence and confidence for a unit’s leadership. (b) The feeling of fear and panic will be present. The survivor must control these feelings. (5) Improvise and Improve. (a) Use tools designed for one purpose for other applications. (b) Use objects around you for different needs. (i.e. use a rock for a hammer) (6) Value living. (a) Place a high value on living. (b) Refuse to give into the problem and obstacles that face you. (c) Draw strength from individuals that rise to the occasion. (7) Act like the natives. (a) Observe the people in the area to determine their daily eating, sleeping, and drinking routines. (b) Observe animal life in the area to help you find sources of food and water. NOTES: Remember that animal reactions can reveal your presence to the enemy. Animals cannot serve as an absolute guide to what you can eat and drink. (8) Live by your wits, but for now, learn basic skills. (a) Practice basic survival skills during all training programs and exercises. 2. STRESS. Stress has many positive benefits. Stress provides us with challenges: it gives us chances to learn about our values and strengths. Too much stress leads to distress. While many of these signs may not be self-identified, it remains critical that all survivors remain attentive to each other’s signs of distress. Listed are a few common signs of distress found when faced with too much stress: a. Difficulty in making decisions (do not confuse this sign for a symptom of hypothermia). b. Angry outbursts. c. Forgetfulness. WSVX 02.01 01-3 d. Low energy level. e. Constant worrying. f. Propensity for mistakes. g. Thoughts about death or suicide. h. Trouble getting along with others. i. Withdrawing from others. j. Hiding from responsibilities. k. Carelessness. 3. SURVIVAL STRESSORS. (WSVX.02.01b) Any event can lead to stress. Often, stressful events occur simultaneously. These events are not stress, but they produce it and are called “stressors”. In response to a stressor, the body prepares either to “fight or flee”. Stressors add up. Anticipating stressors and developing strategies to cope with them are the two ingredients in the effective management of stress. It is essential that the survivor be aware of the types of stressors he will encounter. a. Injury, Illness, or Death. Injury, illness, and death are real possibilities a survivor has to face. Perhaps nothing is more stressful than being alone in an unfamiliar environment where you could die from hostile action, an accident, or from eating something lethal. b. Uncertainty and Lack of Control. The only guarantee in a survival situation is that nothing is guaranteed. This uncertainty and lack of control also add to the stress of being ill, injured, or killed. c. Environment. A survivor will have to contend with the stressors of weather, terrain, and the variety of creatures inhabiting an area. Heat, cold, rain, winds, snow, mountains, insects, and animals are just a few of the challenges awaiting the Marine working to survive. d. Hunger and Thirst. Without food and water a person will weaken and eventually die. Getting and preserving food and water takes on increasing importance as the length of time in a survival setting increases. With the increased likelihood of diarrhea, replenishing electrolytes becomes critical. For a Marine used to having his provisions issued, foraging can be a big source of stress. e. Fatigue. It is essential that survivors employ all available means to preserve mental and physical strength. While food, water, and other energy builders may be in short supply, maximizing sleep to avoid deprivation is a very controllable factor. Further, sleep deprivation directly correlates with increased fear. 01-4 WSVX 02.01 f. Isolation. Being in contact with others provides a greater sense of security and a feeling someone is available to help if problems occur. 4. NATURAL REACTIONS. Man has been able to survive many shifts in his environment throughout the centuries. His ability to adapt physically and mentally to a changing world kept him alive. The average person will have some psychological reactions in a survival situation. These are some of the major internal reactions you might experience with the survival stressors. a. Fear. Fear is our emotional response to dangerous circumstances that we believe have the potential to cause death, injury, or illness. Fear can have a positive function if it encourages us to be cautious in situations where recklessness could result in injury. b. Anxiety. Anxiety can be an uneasy, apprehensive feeling we get when faced with dangerous situations. A survivor reduces his anxiety by performing those tasks that will ensure his coming through the ordeal c. Anger and Frustration. Frustration arises when a person is continually thwarted in his attempts to reach a goal. One outgrowth of frustration is anger. Getting lost, damaged or forgotten equipment, the weather, inhospitable terrain, enemy patrols, and physical limitations are just a few sources of frustration and anger. Frustration and anger encourage, irrational behavior, poorly thought-out decisions, and, in some instances, an “I quit” attitude. d. Depression. Depression is closely linked with frustration and anger when faced with the privations of survival. A destructive cycle between anger and frustration continues until the person becomes worn down-physically, emotionally, and mentally. At this point, he starts to give up, and his focus shifts from “What can I do” to “There is nothing I can do.” e. Loneliness and Boredom. Man is a social animal and enjoys the company of others. Loneliness and boredom can be another source of depression. Marines must find ways to keep their minds productively occupied. f. Guilt. The circumstances leading to your survival setting are sometimes dramatic and tragic. It may be the result of an accident or military mission where there was a loss of life. Perhaps you were the only, or one of a few, survivors. While naturally relieved to be alive, you simultaneously may be mourning the deaths of others that were less fortunate. Do not let guilt feelings prevent you from living. 5. PRIORITIES OF WORK IN A SURVIVAL SITUATION. (WSVX.02.01c) Each survival situation will have considerable aspects that will alter the order in which tasks need to be accomplished. A general guideline is to think in blocks of time. a. First 24 hours. The first 24 hours are critical in a survival situation. You must make an initial estimate of the situation. Enemy, weather, terrain, time of day, and available resources will determine which tasks need to be accomplished first. They should be following. (1) Shelter (2) Fire WSVX 02.01 01-5 (3) Water (4) Signaling b. Second 24 hours. After the first 24 hours have passed, you will now know you can survive. This time period needs to be spent on expanding your knowledge of the area. By completing the following tasks, you will be able to gain valuable knowledge. (1) Tools and weapons. By traveling a short distance from your shelter to locate the necessary resources, you will notice edible food sources and game trails. (2) Traps and snares. Moving further away from your shelter to employ traps and snares, you will be able to locate your shelter area form various vantage points. This will enable you to identify likely avenues of approach into your shelter area. (3) Pathguards. Knowing the likely avenues of approaches, you can effectively place noise and causality producing pathguards to ensure the security of your shelter area. c. Remainder of your survival situation. This time is spent on continuously improving your survival situation until your rescue. 6. GROUP SURVIVAL. In group survival, the group’s survival depends largely on its ability to organize activity. An emergency situation does not bring people together for a common goal; rather, the more difficult and disordered the situation, the greater are the disorganized group’s problems. a. Groups Morale. High morale must come from internal cohesiveness and not merely through external pressure. The moods and attitudes can become wildly contagious. Conscious wellplanned organization and leadership on the basis of delegated or shared responsibility often can prevent panic. High group morale has many advantages. (1) Individual feels strengthened and protected since he realizes that his survival depends on others whom he trusts. (2) The group can meet failure with greater persistency. (3) The group can formulate goals to help each other face the future. b. Factors that Influence Group Survival. There are numerous factors that will influence whether a group can successfully survive. (1) Organization of Manpower - Organized action is important to keep all members of the group briefed; this way the members of the group will know what to do and when to do it, both under ordinary circumstances and in emergencies. (2) Selective Use of Personnel - In well-organized groups, the person often does the job that most closely fits their personal qualifications. 01-6 WSVX 02.01 (3) Acceptance of Suggestion and Criticisms - The senior man must accept responsibility for the final decision, but must be able to take suggestion and criticisms from others. (4) Consideration of Time - On-the-spot decisions that must be acted upon immediately usually determines survival success. (5) Check Equipment - Failure to check equipment can result in failure to survive. (6) Survival Knowledge and Skills - Confidence in one’s ability to survive is increased by acquiring survival knowledge and skills. REFERENCE: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Barry Davies BME, SAS Escape, Evasion, and Survival Manual, 1996. FM 21-76, Survival, 1992. John Wiseman, SAS Survival Guide, 1986. AFM 64-5, Search and Rescue Survival, 1969. B-GA-217-001/PT-001, Down but not Out. WSVX 02.01 01-7 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WSVX 02.02 2/6/05 STUDENT HANDOUT SURVIVAL KIT TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE. In a cold weather mountainous environment, construct a survival kit, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.02) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES. (1) Without the aid of references, list in writing the components for a survival kit, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.02a) (2) Without the aid of references, list in writing one example of each component for a survival kit, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.02b) OUTLINE 1. COMPONENTS FOR A SURVIVAL KIT a. The environment is the key to the types of items you will need in your survival kit. How much equipment you put in your kit depends on how you will carry the kit. A kit on your body will have to be much smaller than one carried in a vehicle. b. Always layer your survival kit, keeping the most important items on your body. c. In preparing your survival kit, select items that can be used for more than one purpose. d. Your survival kit does not need to be elaborate. You only need functional items that will meet your needs and a case to hold them. The case might be a first aid case, an ammunition pouch, or another suitable case. This case should be(1) Water repellent or waterproof. (2) Easy to carry or attach to your body. (3) Suitable to accept various sized items. (4) Durable. 02-1 WSVX.02.02 e. When constructing a survival kit, you should have the following components: (WSVX.02.02a) (1) Fire starting items. (2) Water procurement items. (3) Food procurement items. (4) Signaling items. (5) First aid items. (6) Shelter items. 2. ITEMS CONTAINED WITHIN EACH COMPONTENT (WSVX.02.02b) a. Fire Starting Equipment (1) Matches. (2) Magnifying glass. (3) Flint and Steel. (4) Lighter. (5) Potassium Permanganate, with container of sugar or anti-freeze. (6) Prepackaged Tinder. -Commercially Manufactured -Cotton Balls and Petroleum Jelly b. Water Procurement Item. (1) Water Disinfecting Chemicals. -Iodine Tablets -Betadine Solution -Iodine Solution -Bleach (2) Metal Container. (Serves for boiling water) -Canteen Cup -Survival Kit Container -Any Suitable can that contained no petroleum products. 2 (3) Water Carrying Items. -Canteen -Plastic Bag -Plastic/Metal/Glass Container which contained no petroleum products. c. Food Procurement Items. (1) Fish. -Various sized hooks -Various sized sinkers/weights -Metal leaders and swivels -Small weighted jigs -Fishing line -Think about the size of fish for that environment when selecting weights and sizes. (2) Game. -Snares *Commercially Manufactured *Aircraft Cable *Tie Wire/ Comm Wire -Bait *MRE Cheese Spread, Jelly, or Peanut Butter Package *Fishing Bait -550 Cord for Gill Net and Trap Construction -Engineer/Marking Tape -Sling shot rubber and pouch -Large treble hooks d. Signaling Items (1) Day -Mirror -Whistle -Pyrotechnics (Smoke, Pen Flares) -Air Panels/ Brightly colored material (2) Night. -Pyrotechnics (Pen Flares, Star Clusters) -Lights (Flashlight, Strobe, Chemlight) -Whistle -Buzz Saw 02-3 WSVX.02.02 e. Shelter Items (1) Cordage. - 550 Cord. - Wire. -Communication wire -Tie wire (2) Finger Saw. (3) Sewing Kit with Needles for construction/repair of clothing. (4) Tentage. -poncho -space blanket (5) Candle. f. First Aid Items (1) Band-Aids. -Steristrips -Adhesive Tape -Non-stick pads, 4x4’s, Gauze, Battle Dressings -Muslin Bandage -Butter flies w/ Super glue (2) Ointments. -Burn -Anti-septic (3) Miscellaneous. -Salt -Sugar -Eye Wash -Alcohol prep pads -Suture Kit -Scalpel -Vile of Yarrow g. Miscellaneous items. (1) Fingernail clippers. 4 (2) Compass. (3) Notebook with pen or pencil. (4) Wood eye screws and nails. (5) Surgical tubing. Note: It is assumed that the Marine is always carrying a high quality fixed bladed knife, a multi-tool knife, and a sharpening stone. REFERENCE: 1. Barry Davies BME, SAS Escape, Evasion, and Survival Manual, 1996. 2. FM 21-76, Survival, 1992. 3. John Wiseman, SAS Survival Guide, 1986. 02-5 WSVX.02.02 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WSVX.02.03 2/6/05 STUDENT HANDOUT WATER PROCUREMENT TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, and given water procurement materials, obtain potable water, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.03) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES (1) Without the aid of references, describe in writing why ice is more preferable than snow for melting into drinking water, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.03a) (2) Without the aid of references, list in writing the hazardous fluids to avoid substituting for potable water, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.03b) (3) Without the aid of references, list in writing the methods for disinfecting water, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.03c) (4) Without the aid of references, and given a military bottle of water purification tablets, state in writing its self-life, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.03d) (5) Without the aid of references, and given the water temperature and chemical concentration, state in writing the contact time to disinfect water, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.03e) (6) Without the aid of references, construct a water generator, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.03f) OUTLINE 1. WATER INTAKE a. Thirst is not a strong enough indicator. b. The best plan is to drink utilizing the OVER DRINK method. Drink plenty of water when it is available especially when eating. WSVX.02.03 03-1 c. Dehydration is a major threat. A loss of only 5 % of your body fluids causes thirst, irritability, nausea, and weakness; a 10% loss causes dizziness, headache, inability to walk, and a tingling sensation in limbs; a 15% loss causes dim vision, painful urination, swollen tongue, deafness, and a feeling of numbness in the skin; also a loss of more than 15% body fluids could result in death. d. Your water requirements will be increased if: (1) You have a fever. (2) You are experiencing fear or anxiety. (3) You evaporate more body fluid than necessary. (i.e., not using the proper shelter to your advantage) (4) You have improper clothing. (5) You ration water. (6) You overwork. 2. LOCATING WATER. a. The environment may sometimes provide you with opportunities to acquire water. In a cold weather mountainous region water can generally be located in the following: (1) Snow. Snow can be melted for potable water. Melting snow will result in a higher fuel usage. Uncontaminated snow does not need to be disinfected. (2) Ice. (WSVX.02.03a) Ice can be melted for potable water. Melting ice is preferable to melting snow due to the higher concentration of water per volume. However, since ice is frozen water it needs to be disinfected. (3) Streams and Rivers. Streams and rivers can generally be found in a mountainous region. Extreme caution must be used when approaching the edge to avoid accidental cold-water submersion. (4) Sea Ice. In time, sea ice loses its salinity. You can identify this ice by its rounded corners and bluish color. Gray ice has not yet lost its salt content. b. The following are some general considerations when using snow and ice for water. (1) Never melt snow or ice inside your mouth. This removes body heat and increases the chance of cold weather injuries. 03-2 WSVX.02.03 (2) When on the move, use body heat to melt snow. Place snow or ice in a water bag and place the bag between your layers of clothing, not directly on the skin. (3) Do not waste fuel to melt snow or ice when drinkable water (i.e., stream) is available. (4) If melting snow in a container by a fire, utilize a hot rock to speed up the process and conserving fuel. 3. HAZARDOUS FLUIDS (WSVX.02.03b) a. Survivors have occasionally attempted to augment their water supply with other fluids such as; alcoholic beverages, urine, blood, or seawater. While it is true that each of these fluids have high water content, the impurities they contain require the body to expend more fluid to purify them. (1) Seawater. Seawater in more than minimal quantities is actually toxic. The concentration of sodium and magnesium salts in it is so high that fluid must be drawn from the body to eliminate the salts and eventually the kidneys cease to function. (2) Alcohol. Drinking alcoholic liquids will dehydrate the body, reduce body heat, and cloud judgment. Ingesting a super-cooled liquid can cause immediate frostbite of the throat and possible death. (3) Blood. Blood is considered a food. Drinking blood will require your body to expend additional fluid in order to digest it. (4) Urine. Drinking urine is foolish. Urine is nothing more than body waste. Drinking urine returns waste into your body and requires more fluid to expel it. 4. WATER QUALITY. Water contains minerals, toxins, and pathogens. If consumed in large enough quantities these may be harmful to human health. Pathogens are our primary concern. Pathogens are divided into Virus, Cysts, Bacteria, and Parasites. Certain pathogens are more resistant to chemicals and small enough to move through microscopic holes in equipment (i.e., Tshirt, parachute). Certain pathogens also have the ability to survive in extremely cold water temperatures. Water quality is divided into three levels of safety. Disinfection as the most desired level followed by purified then potable. a. Disinfection. Water disinfection removes or destroys harmful microorganisms. Giardia cysts are an ever-present danger in clear appearing mountain water throughout the world. By drinking non-potable water you may contract diseases or swallow organisms that could harm you. Examples of such diseases or organisms are: Dysentery, Cholera, Typhoid, Flukes, and Leeches. WSVX.02.03 03-3 b. Impure water, no matter how overpowering your thirst, is one of the worst hazards in a survival situation. c. The first step in disinfecting is to select a treatment method. The two methods we will discuss are as follows: (WSVX.02.03c) (1) Heat. The Manual of Naval Preventive Medicine (P-5010) states that you must bring the water to a rolling boil before it is considered safe for human consumption. This is the most preferred method. (a) Bringing water to the boiling point will kill 99.9% of all Giardia cysts. The Giardia cyst dies at 60OC and Cryptosporidium dies at 65C. Water will boil at 14,000 ft at 86OC and at 10,000’ at 90C. With this in mind you should note that altitude does not make a difference unless you are extremely high. (2) Chemicals. There are numerous types of chemicals that can disinfect water. These chemicals are called halogens. In a survival situation, you will use whatever you have available. (a) Iodine Tablets. (b) Chlorine Bleach. (c) Iodine Solution. (d) Betadine Solution. (e) Military water purification tablets. (WSVX.02.03d) These tablets are standard issue for all DOD agencies. These tablets have a shelf life of four years from the date of manufacture unless opened. Once the seal is broken, the shelf life is one year not to exceed the initial expiration date of four years. 49703 Month / Year / Batch Number (3) Water Disinfection Techniques and Halogen Doses. 03-4 WSVX.02.03 Iodination techniques Added to 1 liter or quart of water Iodine tablets Tetraglcine hydroperiodide EDWGT Potable Aqua Globaline 2% iodine solution (tincture) 10% povidone-iodine solution* Amount for 4 ppm ½ tablet 0.2 ml 5 gtts 0.35 ml 8 gtts Amount for 5 ppm ml 2 gtts Amount for 8 ppm 1 tablet 0.4 ml 10 gtts 0.70 ml 16 gtts Amount for 10 ppm ml 4 gtts 1 tablet 8 ppm 1 tablet Chlorination techniques Household bleach 5% Sodium hypochlorie AquaClear Sodium dichloroisocyanurate AquaCure, AquaPure, Chlor-floc Chlorine plus flocculating agent *Providone-iodine solutions release free iodine in levels adequate for disinfection, but scant data is available. Measure with dropper (1 drop=0.05 ml) or tuberculin syringe Ppm-part per million gtts-drops ml-milliliter Concentration of halogen 2 ppm 4 ppm 8 ppm Contact time in minutes at various water temperatures (WSVX.2.3e) 5 C / 40 F 240 180 60 15 C / 60 F 180 50 30 30 C / 85 F 60 45 15 Note: These contact times have been extended from the usual recommendations to account for recent data that prolonged contact time is needed in very cold water to kill Giardia cysts. Note: chemicals may not destroy Cryptosporidium due to its extremely tough membrane. d. Purification. Water purification is the removal of organic and inorganic chemicals and particulate matter, including radioactive particles. While purification can WSVX.02.03 03-5 eliminate offensive color, taste, and odor, it may not remove or kill all microorganisms. (1) Commercial Water Filters. Commercial water filters are generally available in most retail stores and may be with you. Understanding what the filter can do is the first step in safeguarding against future illnesses. (a) A filter with greater than a .03 micron opening will not stop Cryptosporidium. (b) A filter system that does not release a chemical (i.e., iodine) may not kill all pathogens. (c) A filter that has been overused may be clogged. Usage may result in excessive pumping pressure that can move harmful pathogens through the opening. Filter chambers may become plugged causing the pathogen to mutate. e. Potable. Potable only indicates a water source, on average over a period of time, contains a "minimal microbial hazard," so the statistical likelihood of illness is acceptable. (1) Sedimentation. Sedimentation is the separation of suspended particles large enough to settle rapidly by gravity. The time required depends on the size of the particle. Generally, 1 hour is adequate if the water is allowed to sit without agitation. After sediment has formed on the bottom of the container, the clear water is decanted or filtered from the top. Microorganisms, especially cysts, eventually settle, but this takes longer and the organisms are easily disturbed during pouring or filtering. Sedimentation should not be considered a means of disinfection and should be used only as a last resort or in an extreme tactical situation. 5. WATER GENERATOR. (WSVX.02.03f) a. General. Ice is a better source for obtaining water than snow because of higher water content. It takes approximately 3-4 cups of snow for each cup of water. (1) Never let the generator completely run out of snow or ice. (2) Once started the generator will supply more than enough water for 2 people. b. Construction. Material will be determined by what you are carrying: parachute, plastic bag, T-shirt, or bark. 03-6 WSVX.02.03 (1) If wood is available, gather three poles, approximately six feet long and three inches in diameter. Tie them together forming a tripod. (2) Fill the material (T-shirt, parachute, or plastic bag) with snow and tie completely shut. Constantly bang it on the ground to compact the snow, making it dense. Add more snow and repeat the process until the material is completely full. (3) Tie the material of snow to the tripod and place near the fire. Ensure the material is safe from being burnt from the fire. (4) In about 1/2 hour, the generator will start to drip from one spot. Place any kind of container under this drip. (5) Add snow as necessary. (6) If wood is not readily available to construct a tripod, a variation can be constructed by securing a single pole to a tree. Tie the bag of snow to this single pole. Snow can be placed on bark. The bark can be placed near the fire at a slight angle and the melted water collected. WSVX.02.03 03-7 WATER GENERATOR REFERENCE: FM 21-76, Survival, 1992. Paul Auerbach, Wilderness Medicine, 3rd Edition, 1995 Howard Backer MD, MPH, Field Water Disinfection, 1999 Eric Cudnohoske, Wisconsin Pharmacal Company, 1999 03-8 WSVX.02.03 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WSVX.02.04 WSVX.02.05 02/06/05 STUDENT HANDOUT EXPEDIENT SHELTERS AND FIRES TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE (1) In a cold weather mountainous environment, construct shelters, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.04) (2) In a cold weather mountainous environment, construct fires, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.05) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES (1) Without the aid of reference, list in writing the characteristics of a safe expedient shelter, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.04a) (2) Without the aid of references, list in writing the hazards to avoid when using natural shelters, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.04b) (3) Without the aid of references, list in writing man-made snow survival shelters, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.04c) (4) In a cold weather mountainous environment, list in writing the tactical fire lay, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.05a) (5) In a cold weather mountainous environment, start a fire using a primitive method, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.05b) OUTLINE 1. BASIC CRITERIA FOR SHELTER. (WSVX.02.04a) Any type of shelter, whether it is a permanent building, tentage, or a survival shelter must meet six basic criteria to be safe and effective. The goal is you must Prepare For Some Very Hard Days. a. Protection From the Elements. The shelter must provide protection from rain, snow, wind, sun, etc. WSVX.02.04 04-1 b. Free from Natural Hazards. Shelters should not be built in areas of avalanche hazards, under rock fall or “standing dead” trees, which have the potential to fall on your shelter. c. Stable. Shelters must be constructed to withstand the pressures exerted by severe weather. d. Ventilation. Ventilation must be maintained, especially if burning fuel for heat. This prevents the accumulation of carbon monoxide. Ventilation is also needed for carbon dioxide given off when breathing. e. Heat Retention. It must have some type of insulation to retain heat, thus preventing the waste of fuel. f. Drying Facility. A drying facility must be constructed to dry wet clothes. 2. NATURAL SHELTERS. Natural shelters require less work or time. a. Caves or Rock Overhangs. Can be modified by laying walls of rocks, logs or branches across the open sides. b. Hollow Logs. Can be cleaned or dug out, then enhanced with ponchos, tarps or parachutes hung across the openings. c. Hazards of Natural Shelters. (WSVX.02.04b) (1) Animals. Natural shelters may already be inhabited (i.e. bears, coyotes, lions, rats, snakes, etc.). Other concerns from animals may be disease from scat or decaying carcasses. (2) Lack of Ventilation. Natural shelters may not have adequate ventilation. Fires may be built inside for heating or cooking but may be uncomfortable or even dangerous because of the smoke build up. (3) Gas Pockets. Many caves in a mountainous region may have natural gas pockets in them. (4) Instability. Natural shelters may appear stable, but in reality may be a trap waiting to collapse. WSVX.02.04 04-2 3. MAN-MADE SHELTERS. (WSV.02.04c) a. Snow Wall. b. Snow Cave. c. Tree-pit Snow Shelter. d. Snow Trench. e. A-frame Shelter. f. Fallen Tree Bivouac. g. Snow Coffin 4. CONSTRUCTION OF MAN-MADE SHELTERS. a. Considerations. (1) Group size. (2) A low silhouette and reduced living area will improve heat retention. (3) Avoid exposed hilltops, valley floors, moist ground, and avalanche paths. (4) Create a thermal shelter by applying snow, if available, to roof and sides of shelter. (5) Locate in vicinity of fire wood, water, and signaling, if necessary. (6) How much time and effort is needed to build the shelter? (7) Can the shelter adequately protect you from the elements? (8) When in a tactical environment, you must consider the following: (a) Provide concealment from enemy observation. (b) Plan escape routes. b. Snow Wall. The snow wall is an extremely expedient shelter for one or two men. This shelter is constructed when the elements will not afford time to construct a better shelter. (1) Basic principles for construction. WSVX.02.04 04-3 (a) Determine wind direction. (b) Construct a wall of compacted snow in the shape of a horseshoe to shield you from the wind. The wall should be at least 3 feet high and as long as your body. (c) A poncho or tarp can be attached to the top of the wall with the other end secured to the ground for added protection. Skis, poles, branches, and equipment can be used for added stability. SNOW WALL c. Snow Cave. A snow cave is used to shelter 1-16 men for extended periods of time. There must be a well-compacted snow base of at least 6 feet to construct. (1) Basic principles for construction. (a) Dig down into the snow until the desired tunnel entrance has been reached. Place all excavated snow on top of the shelter for added strength. (b) Cut an entrance opening into the snow approximately 3 feet by 3 feet. (c) Continue to dig out cave while removing excess snow out of the entrance. Shape the roof into a dome. If a bluish color appears through the snow in the roof, stop, there is not enough snow to support the roof. WSVX.02.04 04-4 (d) Create a cooking/working self and a sleeping bench inside the shelter. (e) A ventilation hole should be dug through the roof at a 45-degree angle above the entrance. A ski pole or branch is left in the hole to mark the hole and allow clearing should the ventilation hole become clogged. A pine bough branch can be placed into the outside of the roof above the hole to aid in keeping the hole clear during falling snow. During the day and at night there should be an Arctic century posted for safety in case the cave collapses. (f) Personnel who are digging will become wet from perspiration while digging inside the cave. Personnel that are digging should wear a minimum amount of clothing with a protective layer. (g) Once the cave has been dug, completely fill in the entrance hole with snow block. Pack in loose snow between the cracks and allow it to harden for approximately 2-3 hours, weather dependant. After it has hardened, cut out a small entrance hole. (h) Snow caves can be heated by a candle, which will raise the inside temperature, approximately 2 degrees. If a candle is left burning while individuals sleep, a fire watch must remain posted to reduce the danger of asphyxiation. Burning stoves to heat a cave will cause snow to melt and should be avoided. (i) Packs, poncho, or snow blocks can be used to block the entrance to the cave. SNOW CAVE WSVX.02.04 04-5 d. Tree-pit Snow Shelter. A tree-pit snow shelter is designed for 1-3 men for short periods of time. It provides excellent overhead cover and concealment and should be used for LP/Ops. (1) Basic principles for construction. (a) Locate a tree with bushy branches that provides overhead cover. (b) Dig out the snow around the tree trunk until you reach the depth and diameter desired, or until you reach the ground. (c) Find and cut other evergreen boughs. Place them over the top of the pit for additional concealment. Do not utilize bough from the tree you are under. (d) Place evergreen boughs in the bottom of the pit for insulation. TREE-PIT SHELTER e. Fallen Tree Bivouac. The fallen tree bivouac is an excellent shelter because most of the work has already been done. (1) Ensure the tree is stable prior to constructing. (2) Branches on the underside are cut away making a hollow underneath. (3) Place additional insulating material to the top and sides of the tree. WSVX.02.04 04-6 (4) A small fire is built outside of the shelter. FALLEN TREE BIVOUAC f. A-Frame Shelter. An A-Frame shelter is constructed for 1-3 individuals. After the framework is constructed, pine bough/tentage is interwoven onto the frame and snow is packed onto the outside for insulation. A-FRAME g. Snow Trench. A snow trench is a short-term shelter used on extremely hard pack snow and when trees or building materials are not available, (i.e., alpine and glacier environments). Blocks of snow or ice are cut and placed to build this shelter. WSVX.02.04 04-7 SNOW TRENCH (FIRST STEP) WSVX.02.04 04-8 SNOW TRENCH WSVX.02.04 04-9 h. Snow Coffin. A snow coffin is built for 1-4 men for extended periods of time. It is a variation of the snow trench and A-frame, which requires at least 4 feet of compacted snow. (1) Basic principles for construction. (a) Dig a trench into the snow approximately 3 feet wide, 8-12 feet long, and 4 feet deep. (b) Dig a cold hole into the floor of the trench and sleeping platforms (coffins) off the sides of the trench. (c) Cover the top of the trench for added protection with either an A-frame or poncho/tarp. SNOW COFFIN WSVX.02.04 04-10 i. This table can be used as a general guideline to determine which shelter to construct. SNOW PACK LOOSE COMPACTED COMPACTED ICED N/A N/A N/A SNOW DEPTH < 2 FEET 4-6 FEET > 6 FEET N/A N/A > 4 FEET > 2 FEET EST. HRS. TO CONSTRUCT 2 2-3 3 2-3 1-2 1-2 30 MIN RECOMMENDED SHELTER A-FRAME SNOW COFFIN SNOW CAVE SNOW TRENCH FALLEN TREE TREE-PIT SNOW WALL 5. FIRES. Fires fall into two main categories: those built for cooking and those built for warmth and signaling. The basic steps are the same for both: preparing the fire lay, gathering fuel, building the fire, and properly extinguishing the fire. a. Preparing the fire lay. There are two types of fire lays: fire pit and Dakota hole. Fire pits are probably the most common. (1) Without a platform in the snow, the fire will sink. Create a platform as follows: (a) Lay several green logs side by side for the size of your fire. (b) Build your fire on top of the platform or, (c) Dig down to the earth and start fire. (d) Create a windbreak if possible. (e) Avoid using wet rocks. Heat acting on the dampness in sandstone, shale, and stones from streams may cause them to explode. (2) Dakota Hole. (WSV.02.05a) The Dakota Hole is a tactical fire lay. Although no fire is 100% tactical. (a) Reduces the signature of the fire by placing it below ground. (b) By creating a large air draft, the fire will burn with less smoke than the fire pit. (c) It is easier to light in high winds. WSVX.02.04 04-11 DAKATA HOLE b. Gather Fuel. Many Marines take shortcuts when gathering firewood. Taking a few extra minutes can mean the difference between ease and frustration when building a fire. (1) Tinder. Tinder is the initial fuel. It should be fine and dry. Gather a double handful of tinder for the fire to be built and an extra double handful to be stored in a dry place for the following morning. Dew can moisten tinder enough to make lighting the fire difficult. Some examples of tinder are: (a) Shredded cedar/juniper bark, pine needles. (b) Slivers shaved from a dry stick. (c) Natural fibers from equipment supplemented with pine pitch (i.e., cotton battle dressing). (d) Cotton balls and petroleum jelly or Char-cloth. WSVX.02.04 04-12 (2) Kindling. This is the material that is ignited by the tinder that will burn long enough to ignite the fuel. (a) Small sticks/twigs pencil-thick up to the thickness of the thumb. Ensure that they are dry. (b) Due to a typically large resin content, evergreen limbs often make the best kindling. They burn hot and fast, but typically do not last long. (3) Fuel Wood. Fuel Wood is used to keep the blaze going long enough to fulfill its purpose. Ideally, it should burn slow enough to conserve the woodpile, make plenty of heat, and leave an ample supply of long-lasting coals. (a) Firewood broken from the dead limbs of standing trees or windfalls held off the ground will have absorbed less moisture and therefore should burn easily. (b) Refrain from cutting down live, green trees. (c) Softwoods (evergreens and conifers) will burn hot and fast with lots of smoke and spark, leaving little in the way of coals. Hardwoods (broad leaf trees) will burn slower with less smoke and leave a good bed of coals. (d) Learn the woods indigenous to the area. Birch, dogwood, and maple are excellent fuels. Osage orange, ironwood, and manzanita, though difficult to break up, make terrific coals. Aspen and cottonwood burn clean but leave little coals. (e) Stack your wood supply close enough to be handy, but far enough from the flames to be safe. Protect your supply from additional precipitation. (f) If you happen to go down in an aircraft that has remained intact, a mixture of gas and oil may be used. Use caution when igniting this mixture. c. Building the Fire. The type of fire built will be dependent upon its intended use, either cooking, heating, or signaling. (1) Cooking Fires. Cooking fires are used to cook food and boil water. (a) Teepee Fire. The teepee fire is used to produce a concentrated heat source, primarily for cooking. Once a good supply of coals can be seen, collapse the teepee and push embers into a compact bed. WSVX.02.04 04-13 (2) Heating Fires. Heating fires are used to dry clothing and provide a means of signaling. (a) Pyramid Fire. Pyramid fires are used to produce large amounts of light and heat, to dry out wet wood, and provide coals for cooking. TEEPEE FIRE PYRAMID FIRE d. Starting Fires. Lighting fires falls into two categories: modern methods and primitive methods. (1) Modern Methods. Modern igniters use modern devices we normally think of to start a fire. Reliance upon these methods may result in failure during a survival situation. These items may fail when required to serve their purpose. (a) Matches and Lighters. Ensure you waterproof these items. (b) Convex Lens. Binocular, camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying lens are used on bright, sunny days to ignite tender. (c) Flint and Steel. Some types of flint & steel designs will have a block of magnesium attached to the device, which can be shaved onto the tinder prior to igniting. Other designs may have magnesium mixed into the flint to produce a higher quality of spark. (2) Primitive Methods. Primitive fire methods are those developed by early man. There are numerous techniques that fall into this category. The only method that will be taught at MCMWTC is the Bow & Drill. WSVX.02.04 04-14 (3) Bow & Drill. (WSV.02.05b) The technique of starting a fire with a bow & drill is a true field expedient fire starting method, which requires a piece of cord and knife from your survival kit to construct. The components of the bow & drill are bow, drill, socket, fire board, ember patch, and bird’s nest. (a) Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 3/4 of an inch in diameter and 30-36 inches in length. The bowstring can be any type of cord, however, 550 cord works best. Tie the string from one end of the bow to the other, without any slack. (b) Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch in diameter and 8 to 12 inches in length. The top end is tapered to a blunt point to reduce friction generated in the socket. The bottom end is slightly rounded to fit snugly into the depression on the fireboard. (c) Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression on one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure. (d) Fire board. The fireboard is a seasoned softwood which should be 3/4 of an inch thick. Cut a depression 3/4 of an inch from the edge on one side of the fireboard. Cut a V-shape notch from the edge of the fireboard into the center of the depression. This notch is designed to collect and form an ember, which will be used to ignite the tinder. (e) Ember Patch. The ember patch is made from any type of suitable material (i.e., leather, aluminum foil, or bark). It is used to catch and transfer the ember from the fireboard to the bird’s nest. (f) Birds Nest. The bird’s nest is a double handful of tinder, which will be made into the shape of a nest. Tinder must be dry and finely shredded material (i.e., outer bark from juniper/cedar/sage brush or inner bark from cottonwood/aspen or dry grass/moss). Lay your tinder out in two equal rows about 4 inches wide and 8-12 inches long. Loosely roll the first row into a ball and knead the tinder to further break down the fibers. Place this ball perpendicular onto the second row of tinder and wrap. Knead the tinder until all fibers of the ball are interwoven. Insert the drill half way into the ball to form a partial cylinder. This is where the ember will be placed. (4) Producing a fire using the bow & drill. (a) Place the ember patch under the V-shaped notch. (b) Assume the kneeling position, with the left foot on the fireboard near the depression. WSVX.02.04 04-15 (c) Load the bow with the drill. Ensure the drill is between the wood of the bow and bow string. Place the drill into the depression on the fireboard. Place the socket on the tapered end of the drill. (d) Use the left hand to hold the socket while applying downward pressure. (e) Use the right hand to grasp the bow. With a smooth sawing motion, move the bow back and forth to twirl the drill. (f) Once you have established a smooth motion, smoke will appear. Once smoke appears, apply more downward pressure and saw the bow faster. (g) When a thick layer of smoke has accumulated around the depression, stop all movement. Remove the bow, drill, and socket from the fireboard, without moving the fireboard. Carefully remove your left foot off the fireboard. (h) Gently tap the fireboard to ensure all of the ember has fallen out of the V-shaped notch and is lying on the ember patch. Remove the fireboard. (i) Slowly fan the black powder to solidify it into a glowing ember. Grasping the ember patch, carefully drop the ember into the cylinder of the bird’s nest. (j) Grasp the bird’s nest with the cylinder facing towards you and parallel to the ground. Gently blow air into the cylinder. As smoke from the nest becomes thicker, continue to blow air into the cylinder until fire appears. (5) Trouble Shooting the Bow & Drill. (a) The drill will not stay in depression- Apply more downward pressure and/or increase width/depth of depression. (b) The drill will not twirl- Lessen the amount of downward pressure and/or tighten bowstring. (c) Socket smoking- decrease the amount of downward pressure. Wood too soft when compared to hardness of drill. Add some lubrication: animal fat, oil, or grease. WSVX.02.04 04-16 (d) No smoke- Wood may not be seasoned. Check drill to ensure that it is straight. Keep left hand locked against left shin while sawing. (e) Smoke but no ember- V-shaped notch not cut into center of the depression or not enough heat generated. (f) Bowstring runs up and down drill- Use a locked right arm when sawing. Check drill to ensure that it is straight. Ensure bowstring runs over the top of the left boot. (g) Birds nest will not ignite- Tinder not dry. Nest woven too tight. Tinder not kneaded enough. Blowing too hard (ember will fracture). e. Extinguishing the Fire. The fire must be properly extinguished. This is accomplished by using the drown, stir, and feel method. (1) Drown the fire by pouring at water in the fire lay. (2) Stir the ember bed to ensure that the fire is completely out. (3) Check the bed of your fire by feeling for any hot spots. (4) If any hot spots are found, start the process all over again. REFERENCE: 1. 2. 3. 4. FM 21-76, Survival, 1992. Chris Janowski, A Manual that could save you life, 1996. John Wiseman, SAS Survival Guide, 1993. AFP 36-2246, Aircrew Survival, 1996. WSVX.02.04 04-17 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 MSVX.01.02 2/6/05 STUDENT HANDOUT CORE VALUES AND MOUNTAIN LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES LESSON PURPOSE: The purpose of this period of instruction is to emphasize the vital role of leadership in the conduct of successful operations and to promote among leaders at all levels an understanding of the problems common to units operating in a summer mountainous environment. This lesson relates to all of the training that you will receive here at MCMWTC. OUTLINE “One of the most important tenets of cold weather operations is that strong and consistent leadership is essential to survival and to minimize injuries.” -FMFM 7-21 “Tactical Fundamentals for Cold Weather Warfighting” 1. POSITIVE LEADERSHIP AND THE RIGHT ATTITUDE. Leadership must be by example. At first, harsh and unfamiliar conditions tend to be frightening. Marines will find themselves up against many challenges they have never met before and the environment will constantly remind them that they can become a casualty if they make mistakes. Aggressive leadership, which consistently meets and overcomes the challenges of the environment, is essential to mission accomplishment. There will be two enemies to contend with: the enemy soldier and the environment itself. The first step towards defeating these enemies is getting your Marines in the right mental attitude. The leader must maintain a positive attitude towards the mission, his Marines, and the equipment they have to carry out the job. You can be defeated psychologically, if you are not aware of the symptoms of a poorly motivated unit. a. Core Values applied in a survival situation. Core value are very applicable to leadership in a survival situation. In the absence of constant adherence to our core values, subordinate Marines may suffer the consequences of injury and in extreme cases, DEATH. b. Honor. Honor is integrity, responsibility, and accountability. Without honor in this type of environment, decisions are made with inaccurate and/or misleading information. Dishonorable actions or intentions ultimately lead to unethical behavior...trust between Marines will erode, dependability will become unimportant, and the resulting consequences to energy conservation will greatly affect a unit’s cohesion and ability to accomplish its mission. c. Courage. Courage is doing the right thing for the right reason. Courage in this type of environment for small unit leaders to take charge of their unit. The added stress and pressure induced in mountainous terrain makes the tough decisions even tougher to 05-1 WSVX.01.02 make: courageous leaders take that extra step. Trust and confidence in leadership is built upon thorough training to ensure their men are capable of overcoming the fear and uncertainty of enemy and the harsh environment. A few examples of courage are: (1) Ensuring Marines have the proper clothing on for the task they are performing. (2) Ensuring Marines are maintaining security, regardless of weather conditions. (3) Preventing lethargy and laziness from affecting decision making skills. (4) Rising to the challenges of a harsh environment, and beating the cold weather with solid leadership. d. Commitment. Commitment is devotion to the Corps and your fellow Marines. Without commitment, unit cohesion will break down. Marines must know that their safety and well-being rests upon others. Likewise, Marines must provide the same safety and well-being for themselves and others. Only through this type of commitment will a unit successfully accomplish it mission. 2. LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES PECULIAR TO MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS Although most leadership challenges in a temperate environment are the same in cold weather, some problems will arise which must be quickly corrected. a. Cocoon-like Existence. Many men, when bundled up in successive layers of clothing and with their head covered by a hood, tend to withdraw within themselves and to assume a “cocoon-like existence”. When so clothed, the individual's hearing and field of vision are greatly restricted and he tends to become oblivious to his surroundings. His mental faculties become sluggish and although he looks, he does not see. Leaders must recognize and overcome these symptoms. Additionally, the leader needs to watch for the growth of lethargy within himself and must be alert to prevent it. He must always appear alert to his men and prevent them from sinking into a state of cocoon-like existence. (1) If your Marines withdraw into a shell or become moody and depressed, get them involved in conversations with each other. (2) Don’t accept an excuse for not carrying out an order. Cold weather training all too often becomes a camping trip. Leadership must challenge their Marines to train as they would fight. (3) If Marines still display a “Cocoon-like” existence, have them engage in physical activity. b. Individual and Group Hibernation. This problem is similar in manifestation of withdrawal from the environment. It is generally recognized by a tendency of individuals to seek the comfort of sleeping bags, and by the group remaining in tents or other shelter at the neglect of their duties. In extreme cases, guard and security WSVX.01.02 05-2 measures may be jeopardized. Many times, it is the leadership that violates this, thus destroying the unit’s trust and confidence. (1) The leader must ensure that all personnel remain alert and active. Ridged insistence upon proper execution of all military duties and the prompt and proper performance of the many group “chores” is essential. (2) Be alert for individuals who will place their own physical comfort ahead of their assigned duties. Remind them that their mission as Marines is to fight, and to do so successfully requires that weapons and equipment be maintained in working order. c. Personal Contact and Communications. It is essential that each individual and group be kept informed of what is happening. Due to the deadening of the senses typically encountered in cold weather, a man left alone may quickly become oblivious to his surroundings, lose his sense of direction, his concern for his unit, and in extreme cases, for himself. He may become like a sheep and merely follows along, not knowing or caring whether his unit is advancing or withdrawing. Each commander must take strong measures to ensure that small unit leaders keep their subordinates informed. This is particularly true of the company commanders keeping their platoon commanders informed, of platoon commanders informing their squad leaders, and the squad leaders informing their men. General information is of value, but the greatest importance must be placed on matters of immediate concern and interest to the individual. The chain of command must be rigidly followed and leaders must see that no man is left uninformed as to his immediate surrounding and situation. (1) If your Marines find it hard to remember things they have been taught, show patience and review orders, drills and SOP’s. Keep their minds busy. (2) Tempers normally flare up during this type of training, so expect and be prepared to deal with it when it comes. Maintain your sense of humor, lead by example, and don’t let unanticipated problems get the best of you. d. Time/Distance Factors. Mountain operations doctrine recommends that tactical commanders be given every opportunity to exploit local situations and take the initiative when the opportunity is presented. Because of the increased amount of time involved in a movement and the additional time required to accomplish even simple tasks, deviation from tactical plans is difficult. Tactical plans are developed after a thorough reconnaissance and detailed estimate of the situation. Sufficient flexibility is allowed each subordinate leader to use his initiative and ingenuity in accomplishing his mission. Time lags are compensated for by timely issuance of warning orders, by anticipating charges in the tactical situation, and the early issuance of frag orders. Recognition of time/distance factors is the key to successful tactical operations in cold weather mountainous regions. (1) Time-Distance Formula (TDF). This formula is designed to be a guideline and should not be considered as the exact amount of time required for your movement. Furthermore, this formula is for use in ideal conditions. The TDF 05-3 WSVX.01.02 is made for troop on foot in the summertime or troop on skis in the wintertime. If on foot in deep snow, multiply the total time by 2. (a) 3 km/ph + 1 hour for every 300 meters ascent; and/or +1 hour for every 800 meters descent. e. Conservation of Energy. Two environments must be overcome in mountainous regions; one created by the enemy and the second created by the climate and terrain. The climatic environment must not be permitted to sap the energy of the unit to a point where it can no longer cope with the enemy. The leader must be in superior physical condition. He cannot expend the additional energy required by his concern for his men and still have the necessary energy to lead and direct his unit in combat. He must remember that there are seldom any tired units, just TIRED COMMANDERS! (1) IF the unit can effectively fight upon reaching the objective, then it has properly conserved energy. “It has been repeatedly demonstrated that at temperatures lower than -10F, all other problems lose significance in the personal battle for SURVIVAL” 2. Survival ASPECTS OF LEADERSHIP. When dealing with leadership challenges in a survival situation, the foremost weapon a leader must employ is his vigilance: a leader’s attention should be focused on ensuring all Marines of the unit are contributing to the overall success of the situation. a. Cohesion. As a leader, you must ensure that all members of the team are working towards the survivability of the unit. You can not allow individuals or small groups to formulate their own goals or plan of action. b. Self-Worth. A Marine without self-worth is a Marine who does not value living. Leadership is a critical; factor in building self-worth. Tasks must be found for each Marine in which best suits their situation while attempting to receive positive results. (i.e., A man with a broken leg can monitor the fire, A man with a broken arm can still procure water for the unit). This will make each and every Marine feel useful and not a burden to the other members, regardless of their individual situation. c. Natural Reactions to Stress. Leadership must quickly identify natural reactions to signs of stress his Marines may be displaying (i.e., Fear, Anxiety, Guilt, Depression). Failure to recognize these signs early will result in injuries, illness, or death which will reduce the unit’s combat effectiveness. Corrective action must be taken immediately4 d. Will to Survive. The will to survive is a “mind-set” that must be instilled and reinforced within all Marines. Without the “will to survive”, Marines will not succeed. The following tools can aid to develop this “mind-set”. WSVX.01.02 05-4 (1) The Code of Conduct. (2) Pledge of Allegiance. (3) Faith in America. (4) Patriotic Songs (5) Spiritual Faith. 4. CONCLUSION. Paramount to survival is preparation and training that will foster trust and confidence in a unit’s capability to beat the elements and the enemy. Poorly trained units will not possess the “Will to Survive” as they lack the fundamental skills to overcome the survival situation. Individual confidence is built through challenging and realistic training that teaches a Marine how to survive and how to effectively employ cold weather equipment. “Spirit of confidence comes form training and tradition... each individual Marine, because of the fighting tradition of the Corps and the toughness of training, is confident of his own ability and that of his buddies... This confidence in themselves and one anther very often spells the difference between victory and SURVIVAL and defeat and annihilation.” FMFM 1-0 “Leading Marines” REFERENCE: 1. ALMAR 439196, Core Values 2. MCDP 1-0, Leading Marines 3. FMFM 7-21, Tactical Fundamentals for Cold Weather Warfighting 05-5 WSVX.01.02 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WSVX02.06 2/6/05 STUDENT HANDOUT SURVIVAL SIGNALING AND RECOVERY TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE. In a cold weather mountainous environment, conduct survival recovery, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.06) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES (1) Without the aid of references, describe in writing the audio international distress Signal, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.06a) (2) Without the aid of references, describe in writing the visual international distress signal, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.06b) (3) Without the aid of references, construct an improvised visual signaling device, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.06c) (4) Without the aid of reference, utilize a hoist recovery device, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.06d) OUTLINE 1. SIGNALING DEVICES. The equipment listed below are items that may be on your body or items inside an aircraft. Generally, these items are used as signaling devices during movement. They must be accessible for use at any moments notice. a. Pyrotechnics. Pyrotechnics include star clusters and smoke grenades. When using smoke grenades in snow pack, a platform must be built. Without a platform, the smoke grenade will sink into the snow pack and the snow will absorb all smoke. b. M-186 Pen Flare. The M-186 Pen Flare is a signaling device carried in the vest of all crew chiefs and pilots. Remember to cock the gun prior to screwing in the flare. c. Strobe Light. A strobe light is generally carried in the flight vests of all crew chiefs and pilots. It can be used at night for signaling. Care must be taken because a pilot under goggles can't distinguish a flashing strobe from hostile fire. 06-1 WSVX.02.06 d. Flashlight. By using flashlights, a Morse code message can be sent. An SOS distress call consists of sending three dots, three dashes, and three dots. Keep repeating this signal. e. Whistle. The whistle is used in conjunction with the audio international distress signal. It is used to communicate with forces on the ground. f. AN/PRC-90 & AN/PRC-112. The AN/ PRC 90 survival radio is a part of the aviator's survival vest. The AN/PRC-112 will eventually replace the AN/PRC-90. Both radio's can transmit either tone (beacon) or voice. Frequency for both are 282.8 for voice, and 243.0 for beacon. Both of these frequencies are on the UHF Band. g. Day/Night Flare. The day/night flare is a good peacetime survival signal. The flare is for night signaling while the smoke is for day. The older version flare is identified by a red cap with three nubbins while the new generation has three rings around the body for identification during darkness. The flare burns for approximately 20 second while the smoke burns for approximately 60 seconds. NOTE: Once one end is used up, douse in water to cool and save the other end for future use. h. Signal Mirror. A mirror or any shiny object can be used as a signaling device. It can be used as many times as needed. It can be concentrated in one area, making it secure from enemy observation. A mirror is the best signaling device for a survivor. However, it is only as effective as its user. Learn how to use one now before you find yourself in a survival situation. (1) Military signal mirrors have instructions on its back showing how to use it. It should be kept covered to prevent accidental flashing that may be seen by the enemy. (2) Any shiny metallic object can be substituted for a signal mirror. (3) Haze, ground fog, or a mirage may make it hard for a pilot to spot signals from a flashing object. So, if possible, get to the highest point in your area when flashing. If you can't determine the aircraft's location, flash your signal in the direction of the aircraft noise. WSVX 2.6 42-2 NOTE: Pilots have reported seeing mirror flashes up to 160 kilometers away under ideal conditions. AIMING THE SIGNAL MIRROR 2. METHODS OF COMMUNICATION a. Audio. Signaling by means of sound may be good, but it does have some disadvantages. (1) It has limited range unless you use a device that will really project the sound. (2) It may be hard to pinpoint ones location, due to echoes or wind. (3) International Distress Signal. (WSVX.02.06a) The survivor will make six blasts in one minute, returned by three blasts in one minute by the rescuer. b. Visual. Visual signal are generally better than audio signals. They will pin point your location and can been seen at a greater distances under good weather conditions. (1) The visual international distress symbol is recognized by a series of three evenly spaced improvised signaling devices. (WSVX.02.06b) 06-1 WSVX.02.06 3. IMPROVISED SIGNALING DEVICES. (WSVX.02.06c) Improvised signaling devices are generally static in nature. They must be placed in a position to be seen by rescuers. They are made from any resources available, whether natural or man-made. a. Smoke Generator. The smoke generator is an excellent improvised visual signaling device. It gives the survivor the flexibility to signal in either day or night conditions. Build them as soon as time and situation permit, and protect them until needed. (1) Construct your fire in a natural clearing or along the edge of streams (or make a clearing). Signal fires under dense foliage will not be seen from the air. (2) Find two logs, 6 - 10 inches in diameter, and approximately five feet long. Place the two logs parallel to each other with a two foot spacing. (3) Gather enough sticks, approximately two inches in diameter and two feet long to lie across the first two logs. This serves as a platform for the fire. (4) Gather enough completely dry kindling to fill the entire frame. (5) Place your tinder under the platform. (6) Gather enough pine bough to lay on top of the pyramid fire. This serves to protect the fire and the tinder. (7) To light, remove the pine bough and ignite the tinder. If available, construct a torch to speed up the lighting process, especially for multiple fires. WSVX 2.6 42-4 SMOKE GENERATOR (8) To create a smoke effect during the day light hours, place the pine bough on the ignited fire. (9) Placing a smoke grenade or colored flare under the platform will change the color of the smoke generated. The fire to draw in the colored smoke. The colored smoke should contrast with your environment and increase your chances of recovery. (10)If on loose deep snow pack, a platform of boughs need to be built under the two main logs prior to construction. b. Arrangement or alteration of natural materials. Such things as twigs or branches can be placed into letters or symbols to contrast with the snow. To attract more attention ground signals should be arranged in big geometric patterns. (1) International symbols. The following symbols are internationally known: INTERNATIONAL SYMBOLS (2) Shadows. If no other means are available, you may have to construct mounds that will use the sun to cast shadows. These mounds should be constructed in one of the International Distress Patterns. Piled snow or snow blocks may be used to cast shadows. To be effective, these shadow signals must be oriented to the sun to produce the best shadows. In areas close to the equator, a North —South line gives a shadow anytime except noon. Areas further north or south of the equator require the use of East—West line or some point of the compass in between to give the best result. 06-1 WSVX.02.06 (3) Size. The letters should be large as possible for a pilot or crew to spot. (4) SIZE AND RATIO (5) Contrast. When constructing letter symbols, contrast the letter from the surrounding vegetation and terrain. Ideally, bring material from another location to build the letter. This could be clothing, air panels, space blanket, etc. (a) On snow, pile pine bough or use sea dye from a life vest can be utilized. 4. AIR TO GROUND COMMUNICATIONS. Air to ground communications can be accomplished by standard aircraft acknowledgments. a. Aircraft will indicate that ground signals have been seen and understood by: (1) Rocking from side to side. This can be done during the day or in bright moonlight. (2) Making green flashes. This is done with a signal lamp during dark nights. b. Aircraft will indicate that ground signals have been seen but not understood by: (1) Making a complete circle to the left during the day or in bright moonlight. (2) Making red flashes. This is done with a signal lamp during dark nights. WSVX 2.6 42-6 5. RECOVERY. Marines trapped behind enemy lines in future conflicts may not experience quick recovery. Marines may have to move to a place which will minimize risk to the recovery force. A Marine must take responsibility for the safety of the recovery force. a. Placement Considerations. In a hostile situation, signaling devices should not be placed near the following areas due to the possibility of compromise: (1) Obstacles and barriers. (2) Roads and trails. (3) Inhabited areas. (4) Waterways and bridges. (5) Natural lines of drift. (6) Man-made structures. (7) All civilian and military personnel. b. Tactical Consideration. The following tactical considerations should be adhered to prior to employing a signaling device. (1) Use the signal in a manner, which will not jeopardize the safety of the recovery force or you. (2) Locate a position with good escape routes and observation of avenues of approach. Position should be located relatively close to extract site in order to minimize time spent on ground by the recovery force. (3) Maintain continuous security while the signaling device is employed. (4) If enemy movement is detected in the area prior to recovery, attempt to recover or conceal the signal. (5) Employ signaling devices only during the prescribed times as stated in the mission order. c. Recovery Devices. (WSVX.02.06d) In mountainous terrain, a helicopter landing may be impossible due to ground slope, snow pack, or vegetation. The survivor must be familiar with recovery devices that may be aboard the aircraft. 06-1 WSVX.02.06 WSVX 2.6 42-8 JUNGLE PENETRATOR SLING HOIST d. Recovery by other than aircraft. Recovery by means other than aircraft may occur. Unit SOP's should include signaling and link-up with forces at the following locations: (1) Border Crossings. The evader who crosses into a neutral country is subject to detention by that country for the duration of the war. (2)FLOT. (a) Static. Recovery along a static FLOT is always difficult. Under these conditions, enemy and friendly forces can be densely arrayed and well camouflaged with good fields of fire. Attempts to penetrate the FLOT should be avoided. (b) Advancing. Individuals isolated in front of advancing friendly units should immediately take cover and wait for the friendly units to overrun their position. (c) Retreating. Individuals between opposing forces should immediately take cover and wait for enemy units to pass over their position. After most enemy units have moved on, evaders should try to link up with other isolated friendly elements and return to friendly forces. (3) Link-up with friendly patrols. Unit authentication numbers and/or locally developed codes may assist the evaders to safely make contact in or around the FLOT and when approached by friendly forces. Identify yourself to 06-1 WSVX.02.06 friendly unit while behind cover. Once you have been acknowledged follow any commands as you make your approach. REFERENCE: 1. FM 21-76, Survival, 1992. 2. Barry Davies BEM, The SAS Escape, Evasion, and Survival Manual, 1996. 3. AF 64-4, Search and Rescue Survival Training, 1985. 4. JP 3-50.3, Joint Doctrine for Evasion and Recovery, 1996. WSVX 2.6 42-10 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WSVX.02.07 2/6/05 STUDENT HANDOUT SURVIVAL NAVIGATION TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE. In cold weather mountainous environment, navigate in a survival situation, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.07) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES (1) Without the aid of references, list in writing the considerations for travel, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.07a) (2) Without the aid of references, describe in writing the seasonal relationship of the sun and its movement during the equinox and solstice, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.07b) (3) Without the aid of references, and given a circular navigational chart and operating latitude, determine the bearing of the sun at sunrise and sunset, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.07c) (4) Without the aid of references, construct a pocket navigator, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.07d) (5) Without the aid of references, describe in writing the two methods for locating the North Star, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.07e) OUTLINE 1. CONSIDERATIONS FOR STAYING OR TRAVELLING. (WSVX.02.07a) a. Stay with the aircraft or vehicle if possible. More than likely somebody knows where it was going. It is also a ready-made shelter. b. Leave only when: (1) Certain of present location, have known destination, and the ability to get there. (2) Water, food, shelter, and/or help can be reached. (3) Convinced that rescue is not coming. 07-1 WSVX.02.07 c. If the decision is made to travel, the following must also be considered: (1) Which direction to travel and why. (2) What plan is to be followed. (3) What equipment should be taken. (4) How to mark the trail. (5) Predicted weather. d. If the tactical situation permits leave the following information at the departure point: (1) Departure time. (2) Destination. (3) Route of travel/direction. (4) Personal condition. (5) Available supplies. 2. DAYTIME SURVIVAL NAVIGATION a. Sun Movement. It is taken for granted the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. This is quite misleading. In fact, depending on an observer’s latitude and the season, the sun could rise and set up to 50 degrees off of true east and west. Position of the Sun at Equinox and Solstice (1) Summer/Winter Solstice: (21 June/21 December) Two times during the year when the sun has no apparent northward or southward motion. (2) Vernal/Autumnal Equinox: (20 March/23 September) Two times during the year when the sun crosses the celestial equator and the length of day and night are approximately equal. 07-2 WSVX.02.07 SEASONAL RELATIONSHIP b. Sun’s Movement. (WSVX.02.07b) As reflected in the diagram above, the earth continuously moves in a cycle from solstice to equinox; throughout each day, however, the sun appears to travels in a uniform arc across the sky from sunrise to sunset. Exactly half-way along its daily journey, the sun will be directly south of an observer (or north if the observer is in the Southern Hemisphere). This rule may not apply to observers in the tropics (between 23.5 degrees north and south latitude) or in the polar regions (60 degrees latitude). It is at this point that shadows will appear their shortest. The time at which this occurs is referred to as “local apparent noon.” c. Sun’s Bearing. (WSVX.02.07c) With an understanding of the sun’s daily movement, as well as its seasonal paths, a technique is derived that will determine the true bearing of the sun at sunrise and sunset. With the aid of a circular navigational chart, we can accurately navigate based on the sun’s true bearing: (1) Determine the sun’s maximum amplitude at your operating latitude using the top portion of the chart. MWTC operating latitude is 38 degrees. (2) Scale the center baseline of the chart where 0 appears as the middle number; write in the maximum amplitude on the horizontal north / south baseline. (3) Continue to scale the baseline; you should divide the baseline into 6 to 10 tick marks that represent equal divisions of the maximum amplitude. (4) From today’s date along the circumference, draw a straight line down until it intersects the baseline. (5) The number this line intersects is today’s solar amplitude. If the number is left of 0, it is a “north” amplitude; if the number is right of 0, it is a “south” amplitude. Use the formula at the bottom of the chart to determine the sun’s bearing at sunrise or sun set. 07-3 WSVX.02.07 07-4 WSVX.02.07 Circular Navigational Chart 07-5 WSVX.02.07 d. Shadow Stick Construction. This technique will achieve a cardinal direction within 10 degrees of accuracy if done within two hours of local apparent noon. Once again, this technique may be impractical near the polar regions as shadows tend to be very long; similarly, in the tropics shadows are generally very small. Can only be used within 2 hours of local apparent noon. (1) Get a straight, 3-6 foot stick free of branches and pointed at the ends and 3-5 small markers: i.e., sticks, rocks, or nails. (2) Place the stick upright in the ground and mark the shadow tip with a marker. (3) Wait 10-15 minutes and mark shadow tip again with a marker. (4) Repeat this until all of the markers are used. 07-6 WSVX.02.07 SHADOW STICK METHOD (5) The markers will form a West—East line. (6) Put your left foot on the first marker and your right foot on the last marker, you will then be facing north. e. Local Apparent Noon. Whenever using any type of shadow casting device to determine direction, “local apparent noon” (or the sun’s highest point during the day) must be known. Local apparent noon can be determined by the following methods. (1) Knowing sunrise and sunset from mission orders, i.e., sunrise 0630 and sunset 1930. Take the total amount of daylight (13 hours), divide by 2 (6 hours 30 minutes), and add to sunrise (0630 plus 6 hours 30 minutes). Based on this example, local apparent noon would be 1300. (2) Using the string method. The string method is used to find two equidistant marks before and after estimated solar noon. The center point between these two marks represents local apparent noon. 2. POCKET NAVIGATOR. (WSVX.02.07d) The only material required is a small piece of cardboard or other flat-surface material, a watch, a pen or pencil, and a 1 to 2 inch pin or nail. a. Set this tiny rod upright on your flat piece of material so that the sun will cause it to cast a shadow. Mark the position where the base of the rod sits so it can be returned to the same spot for later readings. Place the navigator flat on level ground. Secure the navigator from wind by placing rocks on it. Write the date and mark the tip of the shadow. b. As the sun moves the shadow-tip moves. Make repeated shadow-tip markings every 15 minutes. As you make the marks on the tip of the shadow ensure that you write down the time. c. At the end of the day, connect the shadow-tip markings. The result will normally be a curved line. The arch will be less pronounced closer to the vernal or autumnal equinoxes (March 20 and September 23). If it is not convenient or the tactical situation does not permit to take a full day's shadow-tip readings, your observation can be continued on the following day by orienting the pocket navigator on the ground so that the shadow-tip is aligned with a previously plotted points. d. The markings made at the sun's highest point during the day, or solar noon, is the north—south line. The direction of north should be indicated with an arrow on the navigator as soon as it is determined. This north-south line is drawn from the base of the rod to the mark made at solar noon. This line is the shortest line that can be drawn from the base of the pin to the shadow-tip curve. e. To use your pocket navigator, hold it so that with the shadow-tip is aligned with a plotted point at the specified point. i.e.; if it is now 0900 the shadow-tip must be aligned with that point. This will ensure that your pocket navigator is level. The drawn arrow is now oriented to true north, from which you can orient yourself to any desired direction of travel. 07-7 WSVX.02.07 f. The pocket navigator will work all day and will not be out of date for approximately one week. NNW (327.5) N (0/360) NW (315) WNW (292.5) W (270) FILL BOTTOM HALF TO COMPLETE CIRCLE NE (45) ENE (67.5) E (90) NNE (22.5) POCKET NAVIGATOR 4. NIGHTTIME SURVIVAL NAVIGATION a. Mark North. To aid you in navigating at night, it is beneficial to watch where the sun goes down. If you're going to start moving after dark mark the northerly direction. b. Locating the North Star. There are two methods used in locating the North Star. (WSVX.02.07e) 07-8 WSVX.02.07 (1) Using the Big Dipper (Ursa Major). The best indictors are the two "dippers ". The North Star is the last star in the handle of the little dipper, which is not the easiest constellation to find. However, the Big Dipper is one of the most prominent constellations in the Northern Hemisphere. The two lowest stars of the Big Dipper's cup act as pointers to the North Star. If you line up these two stars, they make a straight line that runs directly to the North Star. The distance to the North Star along this line is 5 times that between the two pointer stars. (2) Using Cassiopeia (Big M or W). Draw a line straight out from the center star, approximately half the distance to the Big Dipper. The North Star will be located there. LOCATING THE NORTH STAR NOTE: Because the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia rotate around the North Star, they will not always appear in the same position in the sky. In the higher latitudes, the North Star is less effective for the purpose of orienting because it appears higher in the sky. At the center of the Arctic circle, it would be directly overhead, and all directions lead South. 07-9 WSVX.02.07 c. Southern Cross. In the Southern Hemisphere, Polaris is not visible. The Southern Cross is the most distinctive constellation. An imaginary line through the long axis of the Southern Cross, or True Cross, points towards a dark spot devoid of stars approximately three degrees offset from the South Pole. The True Cross should not be confused with the larger cross nearby known as the False Cross, which is less bright, more widely spaced, and has five stars. The True Cross can be confirmed by the two closely spaced very bright stars that trail behind the crosspiece. These two stars are often easier to pick out than the cross itself. Look for them. Two of the stars in the True Cross are among the brightest stars in the heavens; they are the stars on the southern and eastern arms. The stars on the northern and western arms are not as apparent. Note: The imaginary point depicted in the picture is the dark spot devoid of stars. SOUTHERN CROSS d. Moon Navigator. Like the sun, the moon rises in the east and sets in the west. Use the same method of the shadow stick as you did during the day. However, lunar illumination is not consistent and can be obscured by clouds. 5. IMPROVISED COMPASSES. There are three improvised techniques to construct a compass. We will cover them in order of most reliable to least. 07-10 WSVX.02.07 a. MAGNET TECHNIQUE. The magnet technique works best. The magnets you are most likely to have available to you are those in a speaker or headphones of a radio. Keep the end of the needle on the battery for a minimum of 2 minutes. But of course you could keep the needle attached to the battery as long as needed. 1. A small piece of iron or steel that is long, thin, and light. Aluminum or yellow metals won't work (only things that rust will do). A pin or needle (the smaller the better) is perfect, but a straightened paper clip, piece of steel baling wire, or barbed wire could also work. Float the metal on still water using a piece of isomat, wood chip, or leaf. Gather some water in a non-magnetic container or a scooped out recess in the ground, such as a puddle. Do not use a "tin can" which is made of steel. (an aluminum can would work.) Place the float on the water, then the metal on it. It will slowly turn to orient itself. Repeat the process several times to confirm your direction. (a). You could also hang you’re needle from a thread. There must be no drafts. This method is not very reliable. 2. b. MAGNETIZATION THROUGH A BATTERY. A power source of 2 volts or more from a battery can be used with a short length of insulated wire to magnetize metal. Coil the wire around a needle. If the wire is non-insulated, wrap the needle with paper or cardboard. Attach the ends to the battery terminals for 5 minutes. You must tightly coil the wire around the needle for it to work, and the battery must not be weak or you will encounter the same problems as the synthetic technique. c. SYNTHETIC TECHNIQUE. Does not magnetize the metal strong enough to hold a true reading, especially if there is any wind. Might give one correct reading out of five and it could be off up to 45 degrees. d. ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS WITH IMPROVISED COMPASSES. The following are common problems with all improvised compasses. (1) Soft steel tends to lose its magnetism fairly quickly, so you will have to re-magnetize your needle occasionally, though you should not have to do this more than two or three times a day. (2) Test your compass by disturbing it after it settles. Do this several times. If it returns to the same alignment, you're OK. It will be lined up north and south, though you will have to determine by other means which end is north. Use the sun, stars, or any other natural signs in the area. 07-11 WSVX.02.07 6. NATURAL NAVIGATION. a. Find out where the prevailing winds originate. b. Sun’s path in Northern Hemisphere is SE-SW 1. Bend in trees because of prevailing winds. 2. Sapling Coloration: whiter on one side, darker green on the other. The sunny side (south side) will cause the tree to turn whitish which is a natural sunscreen. White will be on the SW to SE side of the tree. Pick one that is in the open, exposed to the elements all day. 3. Hottest side of a slope will enhance growth: thicker vegetation the SW side. . 4. Snow melt on one prominent side of the tree: melt/freeze will indicate the south side. 5. Bleach Rock: the sun’s rays has a bleaching effect, lighter side will be to the south. Obviously white rocks are just white rocks. c. Look for more than one sign to confirm your direction. 7. SURVIVAL NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES a. Navigator. a (1) Employ a navigation method. (2) Find the cardinal direction. (3) Pick a steering mark in the desired direction of travel. b. Maintain a Log. The possibility may arise when you will not have a map of the area. A log will decrease the chance of walking in circles. (1) Construction. (a) Use any material available to you i.e., paper, clothing, MRE box, etc. (b) Draw a field sketch annotating North, prominent terrain features and distance / direction traveled. 07-12 WSVX.02.07 (c) Write down any important information seen such as; enemy movements or positions, game, vegetation, roads, trails, etc… (2) Maintenance. (a) Maintain and update field sketch as movement progresses. (b) Ensure readability of your field sketch. (i.e.; don't clutter the sketch so much it can't be read.) Keep it simply so anyone would be able to understand it. c. During Movement Constantly Refer To. (1) Log. (2) Steering marks. d. Actions If You Become Lost. (1) Immediate action. (a) Orient your sketch. (2) Corrective action. (a) Backtrack using steering marks until you have determined the location of your error. (b) Re-orient your sketch. (c) Select direction of travel and continue to march. REFERENCE: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. FM 21-76, Survival, 1992. AFM 64-5, Survival, 1969. David Seidmond, The Essential Wilderness Navigator, 1995. Aircrew Survival 1996. Wilderness Way magazine, Natural Navigation Part 1. 07-13 WSVX.02.07 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WSVX.02.08 2/6/05 STUDENT OUTLINE TRAPS AND SNARES TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, take game, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES (1) Without the aid of references, list in writing the eight general considerations to take game, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08a) (2) Without the aid of references, list in writing the general techniques to take game, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08b) (3) Without the aid of references, list in writing the requirements for snaring and trapping, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08c) (4) Without the aid of references, employ a snare, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08d) (5) Without the aid of references, list in writing the types of triggers, in accordance with the references. (MSVX.02.08e) (6) Without the aid of references, employ a trap, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08f) (7) Without the aid of references, employ a noise producing path guard, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08g) OUTLINE 1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS TO TAKE GAME (WSVX.02.08a) A. General Considerations. Knowing a few general hints and tips will make the trapping of animals easier and considerably more effective. The eight general considerations to take game are: 08-1 WSVX.02.08 (1) Know your game. Knowing the habits of the animal you want to trap or snare will help increase your chances. Such things as when and where they move, feed, and water will help you determine where the set can be most effectively placed. (2) Keep things simple. You don't have time in a survival situation to construct elaborate sets and they do not necessarily do a better job. (3) Place sets in the right place. Animals will travel and stop in certain locations. That is where to build sets. (4) Cover up your scent. Animals will avoid a set which smells threatening or unusual to them (i.e., human scent or P.O.L.’s from equipment or clothing). (a) Man leaves a scent through the pores of the skin by the sweat glands. Use an odorless contact glove when building a set. It may take up to three days for your scent to dissipate if made without gloves. (b) Certain boot soles and clothing may leave a scent, generally this can be detected by the human nose. If noticed, attempt to mask the scent with smoke from your fire. (5) Use the right type of set. Certain sets work better than others do for a particular animal. (6) Use the correct equipment. Using the correct equipment is paramount to success. This includes the weight of the lifting device in proportion to the animal’s weight, the cordage or wire to hold the animal’s strength, and trigger tension. (7) Check sets. Check your sets twice daily: morning and evening. Checking your traps less than twice a day can allow your game to escape, rot, or be taken by other predators. (8) Lure your sets. Lures will add to your chances of success. Certain lures are appropriate at certain times of the year, depending upon the animal desired. (a) Bait Lures. -MRE peanut butter, cheese spread, or jelly. -Dead carcasses. -Dead rodents. (b) Gland or Territorial Lures. -Animal Urine mixed with beaver castors or animal glands. (c) Curiosity Lures. -Single feather, bird wing, piece of fur tied and suspended under a 44-2 WSVX 2.8 tree limb, allowed to freely move with the breeze. 2. General Techniques to kill animals. (WSVX.02.08b) A general technique is the method in which the trap is intended to kill the animal. The acronym "SICK" is useful in remembering these techniques. A. S- Strangle. This method strangles the animal, such as a snare. B. Impale. This method pushes a stake through the animal, such as a spiked dead fall. C. C- Crush. This method crushes the animal, such as a deadfall for a chipmunk. D. K- Knock. This method knocks a larger animal unconscious, such as a deadfall. 3. SNARE NOMENCLATURE AND IMPROVISED SNARES. A snare in nothing more than a piece of wire, rope, or cord with a loop at one end, which tightens down around animal’s neck. Snares are much easier and less time consuming to construct than traps, while producing better results. A. Wire. Although snares can be used with rope or cord, they are less effective than wire. Wire should have memory and resist kinking. Aircraft cable type 7x7, in sizes 1/16 to 3/8 inch should be used. This type of wire prevents animal chew out and resists breakage. Remember that you want the smallest diameter cable capable of holding the animal. B. Locking device. A locking device is imperative for a snare to work properly. Locking devices secure the snare around the animal’s neck. There are several methods available for a locking device. COMMERCIAL BENT WASHER 08-3 WSVX.02.08 KNOT 4. SNARING. In a winter environment, snaring is the most effective means to take game A. Requirements for snaring. (MSVX.02.08c) There are three requirements to effectively employ snares. They are location, presentation, and construction. 1) Location. Location is paramount to success. The following guide can assist you. a) Coyotes, Foxes, and Badger. Along rarely traveled roads, fire lanes, irrigation ditches, fence lines, in saddles, along ridge tops, meadow borders, by carcasses. b) Bobcat and Lynx. At bases of cliffs and large rock faces; on ridges and saddle crossing; along stream bottoms. Cats need security so rarely get far from tree, brush or escape cover. c) Raccoon, Opossum, Skunk, and Ring-tailed Cats. Stream beds and banks; trails along stream beds, ponds, rivers and other water courses; Raccoons like a combination of water, old mature trees, buildings and junk piles, and a consistent food supply like grain or prepared feed. d) Weasel. Marshy, grassy meadows. e) Marten and Fisher. Along meadow edges, ridgelines, and downfalls. f) Mink. Under bridges; around culverts, tiles and junk in or near streams, rivers and lakes, springs and seeps, Muskrat and Beaver lodges and dams. Mink will stop and investigate nearly every hole or cavity around a streambed. g) Beaver and Muskrat. Around the food cache under the ice. h) Rabbits. In thick willow stands along runs and trails. 44-4 WSVX 2.8 2) Presentation. Presentation is the type of set for the intended animal. Cubbie sets work well for bobcat, raccoon, marten, fisher, opossum, and skunk while trail sets work well for coyote, fox, mink, and rabbit. 3) Construction. Construction is the actual building of the set. a) A split stick is utilized to support the snare and ensure the snare fires properly. The split stick can be either green or seasoned wood. However, the snare must not slip through the split. The locking device must be next to the split stick. The split stick must be securely placed in the ground. ( If you are utilizing a weighted snare the locking device may be in the 12 o’clock position.) b) The snare must be anchored or attached to a drag. c) The snare must be loaded so it will fire quickly. d) Loop size. A correctly employed snare will have the snare holding the animal around the neck. Loop size is placed on the snare according to the intended animal. Too large will result in a body or leg catch, resulting in possible chew out or breakage. Too small will enable the animal to force the snare to the side, resulting in a miss. Additionally, the loop must be placed with specific ground clearance. Ideally, the bottom of the loop should hit the intended animal chest high. The snare trigger is that part of the loop which hits the animals chest. 08-5 WSVX.02.08 ANIMAL SQUIRREL RABBIT RACCOON FOX COYOTES BOBCAT NOOSE SIZE 2 1/2 TO 3 INCHES 4 TO 5 1/2 INCHES 6 INCHES 7 TO 10 INCHES 12 TO 14 INCHES 9 INCHES GROUND CLEARANCE 1/2 TO 1 1/2 INCHES 1 1/2 TO 3 INCHES 3 TO 4 INCHES 8 TO 10 INCHES 12 INCHES 8 INCHES Note: -Noose size is the diameter of the snare loop. -Ground clearance is measured from the bottom of the loop to the ground. e) Fencing. The objective of fencing is to have the animal move through the “path of least resistance” or more importantly the snare. Fencing must be subtle and not over done. f) Lure. In a survival situation, you will not be able to employ numerous snares. Luring all snares increases your chances of success. However, it is not necessary for trail sets. 44-6 WSVX 2.8 5. SNARE SETS. (MSVX.2.8d) Although there are numerous ideas to employ snares, here are a few. CUBBIE SET TRAIL SET 08-7 WSVX.02.08 DEN SET VARIOUS LOG SETS 44-8 WSVX 2.8 UNDER THE ICE BEAVER SET 08-9 WSVX.02.08 6. IMPROVISED TRAPS. Improvised traps are made from a variety of materials. Generally, they incorporate a means to kill the animal (i.e., loop or weight) by the use of a trigger. A. Types of Triggers. (WSVX.02.08e) There are two basic triggers used for all traps and path guards. Depending on the situation, variations of these triggers can be used. 1) Toggle. a. Spring Pole. The spring pole requires a small sapling and cordage to construct. The trigger for the spring pole is the toggle. It is designed to lift the animal off the ground; not allowing predatory animals to take your game. Remember, the trigger can not be so tight that the intended game can not set it off. The spring pole can freeze in position. SPRING POLE 44-10 WSVX 2.8 2) Inverted Figure 4. B. Construction of improvised traps. (WSVX.2.8f) Traps are designed to hold or kill animals by use of some type of action. This action is generally caused by either a weight or spring loaded device. 1) Weighted Lift Pole. The lift pole requires a small sapling and cordage to construct. The trigger for the "spring" or "lift" pole is a variation of the toggle. It is designed to lift the animal off the ground, preventing predatory animals from taking game. Remember, the trigger can not be so tight that the intended game can not tip it. 08-11 WSVX.02.08 WEIGHTED LIFT WEIGHTED LIFT 2) Baited Treble Hook. Tie a large treble hook onto a tree limb high enough to cause the animal to jump but not so high it cannot reach it. Bait the treble hook. 7. PATH GUARDS (WSVX.02.08g) Path guards are designed to protect and provide security for your shelter area against the enemy and predatory animals. They are classified according to noise or casualty producing path guards. A. Noise producing path guards. Noise producing pathguards serve as an alarm for your shelter area. When triggered, it should produce some type of loud noise. Although construction can vary, depending on materials available, one example is as follows: 1) Secure an inverted figure 4 trigger to a tree. 2) On the weighted end of the trigger, attach several pieces of metal to the cord. Use whatever is available for metal. 44-12 WSVX 2.8 3) Attach a trip cord to the trigger stick. Run the trip cord across the trail and anchor on the far side. 4) Place a solid object (i.e., wood, and rocks) underneath the suspended metal. When triggered, the metal should fall on top of the solid object; making an audible noise. B. Casualty producing path guards. Casualty producing path guards in a winter environment are difficult to construct. When triggered, they should cause death or injury to the enemy or predatory animal. A large-scale deadfall trap can be modified for a casualty producing path guards. 1) Sharpen spikes and secure them on the underside of the deadfall. Spikes can be poisoned. 2) Set up an inverted figure 4 trigger with trip cord as discussed for the noise producing path guard. 3) Set the deadfall to land across the trip cord along the trail. 4) Creativity and ingenuity are the keys to effectively employing pathguards. REFERENCE: 1. Dr. Major L. Boddicker, Trapping Rocky Mountain Furbearers, 1980. 2. Raymond Thompson, Snares and Snaring, 3rd Edition 1996. 3. Chris Janowski, A Manual that could save your life, 1989. 08-13 WSVX.02.08 UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Mountain Warfare Training Center Bridgeport, California 93517-5001 WSVX.02.09 02/06/05 STUDENT HANDOUT SURVIVAL USES OF GAME TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a summer mountainous environment, prepare game, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.09) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES (1) Without the aid of references and given an animal, dress and skin game, in accordance with the references.
Winter survival course handbook, survival manual, survival guide 1 requirements for survival 2 survival kit 3 water procurement 4 expedient shelters and fires.
SURVIVAL
WINTER SURVIVAL COURSE HANDBOOK. SURVIVAL MANUAL, SURVIVAL GUIDE 1 REQUIREMENTS FO. - Barnes & Noble.com reserves the right not to post any review.
U.S. Army Survival Manual FM 21-76 June 1992. renumbered under the latest U.S. Military Field Manual numbering system to FM 3-05.70, is available on ETS.
Winter Storm Survival U.S. Army Field Manual 21-76 is the source material for this document. The U.S. Army Survival Manual covers a broad area of proven survival.
Army Field Manual Survival Pdf *This publication supersedes FM 3-50.1, 21 November 2011. separated from their unit or in a situation where they must survive, evade.
United States Army Field Manuals are published by the United States. MWTC Winter Survival Course Handbook. US Army, Field Manual, Military surveillance.